Ancient Africa . . .in French

[djoser-xyyman]

Edit: Changed the Title

Just came across this powerfull tool translating French to English. Will post papers written in French but "loosely" translated to English.



LET"S HEAR WHAT THE FRENCH HAVE TO SAY!!!

[djoser-xyyman]

Résumé : En Égypte ancienne "mr ", désigne une houe qui existait en deux modèles respectivement grand et petit. En Afrique noire contemporaine on retrouve des outils agricoles analogues à la fois dans leurs formes et dans leurs modes d'utilisation. A cela s'ajoute une terminologie commune de l'espace agricole et du pouvoir terrien en Égypte ancienne et chez les Peuls de la région du fleuve Sénégal ainsi que chez les Mandingues de Casamance pris comme exemples. Des faits, qui avec tant d'autres (cf. Ankh n°1), traduisent l'unité culturelle profonde existant entre les anciens Égyptiens et les Négro-Africains d'aujourd'hui.


Abstract — mr : A farming instrument through time and space

In Ancient Egypt, "mr",, denoted a large or small hoe. In contemporary Black Africa, similarly shaped hoes are used for the same agricultural tasks as in Ancient Egypt. Also, the terminology used for designating agricultural space and land ownership by Fulaani of the Senegal river region and the Mandingo of Casamance is the same as in Ancient Egypt. These are only several of numerous examples (cf. Ankh n°1) which indicate the deep cultural unity connecting the ancient Egyptians with present day Negro Africans.

[djoser-xyyman]

Résumé : L'auteur poursuit ses recherches sur la culture matérielle en Égypte ancienne et en Afrique noire traditionnelle. Après avoir étudié les instruments aratoires (cf. Ankh n° 2), il s'intéresse dans le présent article aux bâtons, aux massues et aux sceptres. La comparaison des faits porte sur les termes désignant ces objets, leur forme, leur mode d'utilisation, leur attribut symbolique, etc. La mise en évidence du caractère systématique des similitudes oblige à écarter l'hypothèse de convergences dues au hasard et conduit, au contraire, à admettre l'existence de contacts directs et suivis entre les populations concernées. Se trouve dès lors posée la question de l'époque et de l'aire géographique où eurent lieu ces contacts. La question de fond sous-jacente est l'identification du berceau qui a été le creuset de l'unité culturelle de l'Afrique noire.



Abstract : Sticks, clubs and scepters in Ancient Egypt and Black Africa — The author pursues his research into the material culture of Ancient Egypt and traditionnal Black Africa. In a previous paper he studied the hoe farming tool (cf. Ankh n°2). Here he investigates, sticks, clubs and scepters. Comparisons concern their respective vocabulary, shape, the way they are used, and their symbolic significance. The systematic nature of similarities revealed bars us from simply attributing these to chance and points to direct and sustained contacts between the populations. When and where did these contacts take place ? The main underlying question is to identify the cradle of the Black Africa's cultural unity.

[djoser-xyyman]

Égypte ancienne et Afrique noire : quelques nouveaux faits qui éclairent leurs relations

Résumé : Des faits nouveaux, fruit des recherches menées par des égyptologues négro africains (continent et diaspora) permettent de confirmer aujourd’hui l’existence de l’unité égypto-africaine dont le berceau le plus fécond est bien l’Égypte ancienne. Ce berceau ne se disloqua qu’avec l’affaiblissement puis la chute du pouvoir pharaonique, donnant ainsi naissance à des vagues migratoires en direction de l’intérieur du continent. L’auteur présente, ici, un aperçu de ses récentes recherches relatives à différents registres lexicaux : les parties du corps, l’eau, l’agriculture, etc.



Abstract : Ancient Egypt and Black Africa : new researches which highlight their relationships - New facts from African Egyptologists (Africa and Diaspora) researches allow to confirm today the Egypto-African unity whose the most fecund cradle is the Ancient Egypt. This cradle has been broken with the weakness and the shut down of the pharaonic power which has provocated migration waves towards the interior of the African continent. In this essay the author gives an overview of his recent work concerning different lexical fields : parts of the body, water, agriculture, etc.

[djoser-xyyman]

La polygamie : réalité, causes, manifestations et conséquences en Afrique noire depuis l’Égypte ancienne

Résumé : L’auteur montre la réalité et la permanence de la polygamie en Afrique noire, depuis l’Égypte pharaonique jusqu’à la période contemporaine. Les causes et les conséquences de ce phénomène sociologique y sont analysées ainsi que le lien existant entre la polygamie et le pouvoir. Cette étude socio-historique éclaire un aspect méconnu de l’unité socio-culturelle de l’Afrique noire.



Polygamy : reality, causes and consequences in Black Africa since Ancient Egypt

Abstract : Making use of sound methodology, the author is displaying the reality and permanence of polygamy in Black Africa since Pharaonic Egypt times up to nowadays. The causes and consequences of this social phenomenon are heedfully analyzed as well as the link between polygamy and power. This study highlights and overly ignored aspect of Black African cultural unity.

[djoser-xyyman]

I. Introduction



This article highlights the considerable data, very different, we have about the quantitative evolution of the black population of Africa since prehistoric times to the first census coordinated 1948/1949 *.



After a brief review of our knowledge on the population of tropical Africa in prehistory and antiquity, and some considerations on the natural conditions, are examined in turn:



- The state's population between the 8th and the 17th century according to the testimony and archeology,

- A method for evaluating the black African population in the 15th / 16th century

- Reasoning and calculations that corroborate this assessment.





II. Prehistoric and black African population in Antiquity



In the current state of research, it appears that not only Homo erectus but Homo sapiens sapiens are very old (130,000 years or more) in East Africa where the climate is particularly favorable to the human body, except in case of drought. When the bio-climatic conditions have permitted, the soil has retained some unspecified bones of people who lived in prehistoric times. Archaeological excavations have unearthed a percentage probably low. However, the amount of bone remains found in East Africa is significant, which suggests a relatively large settlement for the time in this region. The Belgian prehistorian F. VAN NOTEN notes that the Upper Paleolithic is present for more than 40,000 years [1], that is to say before its appearance in other parts of Africa and the world. Continuity of lithic industries in tropical Africa had already been felt and noted by H. Alimen [2], suggesting a local evolution. Figurations cave were dated 35,000 BC in Tanzania [3], and 28,000 BC in Namibia [4].



The growth of black African peoples in the late Paleolithic and Neolithic is seen by specialists. According to F. Wendorf and R. SCHILD, barley was known in the valley of the Nile in Upper Egypt and it was the subject of a pre-agriculture to 14 000/12 000 BC [5]. The domestic cattle of the eastern Sahara (sites Nabta Playa and Kir Kiseiba, west of Abu Simbel) have been dated to 10 000-9000 BP. F. Wendorf, A. CLOSE A. Gautier, and R. SCHILD, conclude that they are "slightly older than those of Eurasia" [6]. The process of domestication would have done, in fact, in the Nile Valley in Lower Nubia during the 9th millennium BC, approximately [7]. Although he thinks that the domestication of plants and animals has accomplished so much slower and progressive, A. Muzzolini do not write unless:

"It shows that in Africa, human groups also have become important, and are now concentrating their activities on limited land ... The population increase seems obvious. Aterian sites in the tens, by those of paleolithical hundreds, as the Neolithic sites ... we meet everywhere, certainly in the thousands [7].



It was between 8000 and 6000 BC that flourished, according to J. E. SUTTON, civilization proved by many archaeological sites, characterized by high consumption of fish and shellfish, which occupies a vast area: the highlands of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania Rift Valley, middle Nile, Chad, Upper Niger, Sahara highlands [8]. The black people covered the Sahara to the Mediterranean coast as evidenced by the "Capsians Negroid" in Tunisia, the rock engravings of the Sahara, and the first performances of the Libyans in Egyptian iconography [9]. They also occupied Egypt [10]. Around 8000 BC, the polished stone tools begin to appear in the Nachikoufien in northern Zambia [11]. The pottery is attested about 7500 BC in the Air massif [12].

In West Africa, on the edge, forest, savanna, especially Eleru Iwo (Nigeria), the transition to food production began around 4000 BC [13], only later that the Khartoum Neolithic (Shaheinab site).



The Nok civilization, also in Nigeria, lasted from 3500 BC (?) To 200 AD [14], relayed it seems by the Ife civilization.



A pottery was found in the lower level of the cave Gamble (Gamble's cellar, Elmenteita, east of Lake Victoria Nyanza), dated about 6000 BC [15]. To the southeast of the lake, two sites have yielded pottery dating from the late 4th and early 3rd millennium [16]. Abundant remains of pottery were also found west of Lake Malawi, in the levels of Nachikoufien, from 2000 bc, that is to say 2400 BC (calibrated date) [17]. It was at that time that the horse and dogs are certified to ovicaprinae Karkarichinkat, Mali [18].



According to various ancient writers, demographers and A. M. REINHARD ARMENGAUD have estimated the population of ancient Egypt has been the order of 7 to 8 million people, these figures "do not necessarily mark the maximum reached" (see note 52, op. Cit. P. 23 ). K. W. Butz (Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt, Chicago, 1976, Table 4, p. 83), quoted by D. VALBELLE, moved 866,000 inhabitants at the time Thinite, 1.614 million during the Old Kingdom, Middle 1966000 2887000 Empire and the New Kingdom, figures based on the appraisal of crops (D. VALBELLE, Life in ancient Egypt, Paris, PUF, 1989, p. 9). D. VALBELLE believes that these estimates are likely to be challenged by a study of figures provided by the Egyptian texts themselves. Indeed, if we assume that the regular army at the height of the New Kingdom accounted for 0.2% of the population (cf. LM DIOP-MAES, see note 35, op. Cit., Pp. 784 - 786), it could be between 9 and 10 million. But in case of prolonged accumulation of bad conditions (disturbances, wars, floods insufficient ...) the number of people could be at the end, halved. From the first cataract of the Nile to the 6th, the vast Nubia was relatively large population. Jebel Maya (or Moya), 260 km south / south-east of Khartoum, H. Alimen indicates a station in 1443 which contained Neolithic skeletons [19]. In 2680 BC, the Egyptians report that they have done in Lower Nubia, 11,000 prisoners and have captured 200,000 head of cattle [20]. Note, for comparison, only after a battle against Ur in SARGON 1 to 2400 / 2300 BC, 5060 prisoners have been counted and the Mesopotamian population was estimated at 4 or 5 million people this time [52, p.25].



In the Middle Kingdom, we measure the population size and power of the Nubian kingdom of Kush to the singular importance of the fortifications maintained by the Egyptians in Nubia to keep the public, protect and defend their navigation southern border. At the time of the Hyksos domination in Egypt (17th century BC), the owner of a tomb at Kerma, was accompanied by 200-300 people. Fine pottery, copper daggers, worked wood and inlaid ivory, leather hat decorated with mica, found in this tomb, show the importance of crafts [21].



Under the Egyptian New Kingdom, there is the presence in Nubia a considerable number of scribes, priests, soldiers and policemen, artisans and Egyptian Nubian. The lists of tribute collected in Nubia show there were not only animals and grains, but also fly swatter, shields, beds, chairs, thus manufactured, which is very significant since the number people is related to the degree of development of economic activity. Then, the Kushite kingdom became very powerful and gives Egypt's XXV Dynasty (8/7e century BC). Urban centers grow. In the 5th century, Herodotus qualify Meroe "big city", that the archaeological remains were confirmed [21]. The authors of Chapter 11, Volume 2 of the General History of Africa (UNESCO), A. HAKEM, I. HRBEK and J. Vercoutter, find, after the results of excavations that Meroe at its height was a city "great", with all the elements related to urban life (palaces, baths, temples, cemeteries, etc.. Cf. P . 335)

The major urban centers and rural habitats Nubian are gradually uncovered by archaeologists [21], making it unacceptable low scores proposed by K. GRZYMSKY [22] (discussed in [36, p. 71-76]).



In the current state of dating, the beginning of the Iron Age in Africa are older than Hittite country. D. Grebenart considers that the metallurgy of iron was combined with that of copper around Agadez, the latter beginning at the end of the 3rd millennium and having well developed between 1730 and 1400 BC [23] in Rwanda and Burundi the first trace of iron back to 1470 BC [24].



F. VAN NOTEN shows that from the early Iron Age, there were extensive trade networks [25], which is confirmed by the four expeditions of the Egyptian HERKOUF caravan leader, the 24th century BC [26] in destination countries Yam, the historian P. Kalck located northeast of the CAR [27]. This suggests, at the same time, the savannah Nilo-Chad was as crowded as suggested by J. LECLANT [28].



It is important to remember that China has emerged from the Neolithic until the 18th century BC when the predynastic civilization covered both Nubia and Egypt in the 5th and 4th millennia. This implies a shift in regard to population growth. It is logical to assume that Africa, the Neolithic and in antiquity must have had a total population greater than Europe and probably even higher than in Asia, in contrast to figures published by demographers [29]. They were not aware of all remains and archaeological evidence available today, and ahistorical view of black Africa were led to believe that the pathology observed in 1900-1930 was a constant.



In Central Africa, the archaeologist P. Vidal has a density of about 1 inhabitant per km2 in the middle of the 1st millennium BC or even earlier [30].



The city of Djenne-jeno, near the present Djenné (Mali), 3rd century BC [31], as the first urban centers in Ethiopia. In southern Zambia, a region of fertile plateaus, we found large villages in the early Iron Age. Other remains indicate a significant economic development [32]. It appears from the statement of DW PHILLIPSON the stone construction was common practice in the region of Zimbabwe from the early Iron Age, during the "first two-thirds of the first millennium" of our era.




III. The medium intertropical Africa and men *



Despite these many still believe that the natural environment of tropical Africa is bad for men. Among the possible causes of the low population of sub-Saharan Africa recorded during the period 1910-1960, a multitude of natural factors that are clearly unfavorable to man are cited: large area of dense forest, and more semi-deserts , erratic rainfall, extension of laterites and poor soils on sandstone rocks, sand, granite ... the devastation inflicted among men and animals, many diseases, endemic diseases, epidemics characteristic of warm climates, the isolation due to the bar and the eccentric location relative to what they naturally add the wars and the slave trade. For the colonial period, we merely cite a few partial facts and point well known, like the fall population of Gabon.



"Africa, Land overwhelming," "Nature grand but inhuman," such are the titles of paragraphs that were found, there are some thirty five years in the geography textbook for French students. Some continue to believe that it is no coincidence that Africa is still the favorite land of animism and tribal groups.



However, "making the environment ... only, or even primarily responsible for human ruins it contains, is a mistake," wrote J. RICHARD-MOLARD (1951). Indeed, historians and sociologists questioned by Toynbee's views [33]: the challenge of the natural environment intertropical Africa must be regarded as "insurmountable" (overwhelming nature) or otherwise as too "safe", ie insufficiently stimulating.



This way of posing the problem called for important notes: either the natural environment is recognized too relentless to be dominated by a pre-industrial economy, therefore, social structures and policies are closely "packed" as in polar regions, and we can not charge them with the responsibility of the state of observed fact which would fall entirely to the natural environment, as assumed by many geographers, or else the medium is too lenient, and all the data listed by unfavorable natural geographers, even if they exist This is no doubt, lose their meaning, and the favorable natural factors, sometimes once blown up, but now neglected, come to the forefront: the temperatures necessary to grow all year, and absence of cold Sunshine powerful water unevenly distributed, of course, but quite abundant on average, many rivers, permanent vegetation lush and often, a relative abundance of grasses, tubers, fruits, oilseeds, fish , of various animals ... and metal (the rest used for many years), but at the same time, these are human factors that come to the fore: the men, adequately stocked, would exempt from the efforts leading to systems of organization and production likely increase the number of people still in this light.



We often forget that South Asia provides a natural environment similar to that of tropical Africa. However, South Asia feed it, a large population. South Asia has a huge variety of companies and generally high average densities, but very unevenly distributed. So should we assume that only the complex, only the middle meeting Intertropical + black societies rather isolated, leading to low population densities because of the structure and organization of these societies?



In fact, the South Asian world has witnessed the rise of civilizations developed and flourish alongside other remained at the tribal stage, as in pre-colonial black Africa: the Chenchus of India, the Veddahs Island Ceylon, and the Semang Sakais Malaysia, and many others, had the kinds of life typical rudimentary. It is however important to consider whether the countries of the Asian monsoon would not be more favorable to humans than those of tropical Africa.



The equatorial and tropical countries of Asia are as black Africa, about 20 million km2 in both instances, a high proportion of land unsuitable for agriculture (part of the Deccan, many mountain ranges .. .), or difficult to cultivate (jungle. ..), and almost uninhabited regions (Bornéo. ..). No doubt the South Asian countries have they, through their valleys and their deltas, a much higher percentage of fertile soil (alluvial especially since Africa has also expanded appreciable volcanic soils). But Africa has no tsunamis, no hurricanes, earthquakes, and less than very high mountain ranges, many places highlands of East Africa and southern Africa are compared to an earthly paradise it is in these regions that the first humans appeared. Far from being hostile, the natural environment that was suited to his birthplace undressed human origins. Archaeology reveals that the Neolithic sites abound in intertropical Africa, as we have seen.





IV. Tropical Africa from the 8th to the 17th century according to the evidence and archeology



One can imagine the socio-economic and politico-administrative black Africa during this period, from studying the texts of Arab travelers, writers Sudan (internal source), stories of early European navigators and from the archaeological remains (CA DIOP, [34] LM DIOP [35], [36], [37], [38] B. Davidson [42] P. Mercier [43] J. Huraults [ 63], [77] ... as well as volumes III and IV of the General History of Africa published by UNESCO).



IV.1. Source criticism



The first critical analysis of various texts describing time "Land of Blacks" was made by historians. For example, Mr. Mollat [39] writes about the narrators:



"At the top of them, the richness and quality of his information comes Cadamosto (p.155) ... vanity aside, Cadamosto is the sincerity and objectivity (p. 56). .. [it is] the most accurate portrait (p. 178) ... Batoutah, despite his dislike for blacks, recognizes the existence of states and a former urban life elsewhere, for example in Mali (p. 214) ... This brilliant storyteller bear confrontation with some irrefutable evidence of the literature and archeology. Despite its frequent bias, he shows a keen observer ... [he] calls Gao, one great city the most beautiful, largest and richest of Sudan. " In his history of the Congo [40], indicates that Mr. SORET DAPPER is "the compiler guy who read everything he could read in his time" and that his "work can be regarded as the basis of our documentation "... He added that Labat is more complete than DAPPER, but less secure than himself. Theodore Monod note that the information provided by Valentin Rodriguez Joao FERNANDES often firsthand, and that many details, some of which have since been verified, establish the quality of his evidence ([46], the introductory text for translation). We can see from the German anthropologist Frobenius: "What the elders told the captains ... On the Elbe, the markets, Pigafetta, and all the others what they have told is true, we can control "[41].



Thousands of references were made to the General History of Africa published by UNESCO. The sources are not rare, and reliability comes from their confrontation, their analysis and their verification by archeology.



For example, it was discovered during excavations Koumbi-Saleh was consistent with the description of the capital of the empire of Ghana EL BEKRI.



For Benin, the number of streets by a statement matches the number of districts indicated by the other, the perimeter evaluated by a third the length of a main street given by the first, all that would suggest that testimony that the only royal palace was home to 10 000 to 15 000 people is not excessive.



The circumstances of census houses Gao, the accuracy of the figure, 7626, leave little room for doubt about its value. The thousands of boats addressed in this city, its comparison with Kano, the testimony of Leo Africanus confirm the number of inhabitants of this town, besides the capital of a vast empire.



For the region of Djenne, see S. K. and R. J. MAC INTOSH [31] have conducted an archaeological investigation by aerial photography supplemented by ground prospecting and dating. A first Djenne back to the 3rd century BC. The region is booming since the end of the first millennium AD C, which intersects exactly what ES said Sa'd in the Tarikh es-Sudan, that the new Djenné was founded in the 2nd century of the Hegira. The authors note that this expansion is not due to trans-Saharan trade, but the internal development of a commercial network increasingly complex. Thus is confirmed by the archaeological description ES Sa'd gives territory around Djenne (more than 7,000 villages). A reconciliation is also established with the testimony of Leo Africanus on Guber (or Gobir Gober): in this city, "there are large number of weavers and shoemakers, who make shoes for fashion ... he 's carries, in quantity and Tombut Cago "(that is to say, Timbuktu and Gao, p. 301-302). However, Gober is located about 1000 km from the Niger bend. This sentence of Leo Africanus shows the importance of craft, labor and intra-African trade before the Portuguese and Moroccan attacks. A Engarouka, 6800 houses are in ruins there [42]. Dongola were 10,000 fires by Leo Africanus. Note also that if the sailors speak of a million soldiers in Angola (van Linschoten, LOPEZ) is anyway that this army seemed extremely numerous Europeans who had seen it, even if we do can make such a figure at the foot of the letter. P. Mercier also noted in the introduction to his book [43]: "The first travelers discussing peoples and nations where the last trip before the colonial conquest, speak of tribes and peoples. The first talk seriously and even compliance with the kings and their power. With the 18th century, disrespect begins to appear. In fact, from the late 17th century, the shift is already made, is shown by the story of the Dutchman W. BOSMAN.Le lifestyle in the huts seemed mediocre or miserable to various witnesses, but all agree on the population abundance of supplies, craft production (textiles, metal ...) - which is confirmed by the density remains low furnaces - except in a number of areas that the authors of the period have also referred [44].



The analysis of these various sources led to pose as quite likely the hypothesis of a very numerous population in black Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Cities of 6000-7000 houses important, not counting the boxes around, and many villages of all sizes found in most parts of tropical Africa: agriculture, handicrafts and commerce flourished there in the vast States fairly stable and, as noted by the German anthropologist Frobenius, ordered "to the smallest details," contrary to what is still generally believed [41].



IV.2. Some evidence


Ca da Mosto (1457) speaks of the Negroes of Mali, which carries salt "for a long space journey with such a mass of people on foot to resemble a exercitant" (ie a weapon). He adds: "... I leave you to imagine what a multitude of people is required to bring the salt and how great is the number of those who use them" [45].



V. FERNANDES reported in the early 16th century, the testimony of Joao Rodriguez: "To the people gyloffo (woloff) adds borders or a nation called Turucooes (Tekrur) ... And it's a huge crowd. ";" into the River Gambia to the end gyloffos ... they have a large and populous country and here along the coast and inside, everything is populated villages. In these countries (Mandingo), there many populated places with 5,000, 10,000 or more inhabitants "[46].



According DAPPER, found in Benin "infinite villages" (p. 308); province dinghy is a great country full of towns and villages (p. 323), Prince of control Bamba "amount of villages" (p. 342), the kingdom of Ngola (Angola) had "eight major provinces, each of which" was "divided into several manors: Lovando has 39 Ilamba 42 Massingan 12, 60 and Cambamda Embacco equally" (p. 361 ) and, in the province of sinfo (northern Lovando), we found a village "almost 3 miles in 3 miles" (p. 362) he have been rising "32 lordships" [44].



From the number of homes, schools, students, tailors mentioned in chronicles Sudanese, it was possible to restore an order of magnitude of the population of Timbuktu and Gao before 1591: 140 000-160 000 [ L. Mr. DIOP Maes, 37].


Regarding Gao and Kano, it is possible to get a clear idea of their size through this curious and very interesting anecdote reported by KATI [Tarikh al-Fettâch, trans. HOUDA & Delafosse, Paris, Maisonneuve, 1964]:

... "People of Sudan [country east of Niger, Hausa therefore] had a discussion with people of Gao, the Sudanese saying that Kano was more important and bigger than ... Gao trembling with impatience of young people of Timbuktu and some inhabitants of Gao and intervened, taking the paper, ink, feathers, they entered the town of Gao and began to count the blocks, starting with the first house west of the city and to include one after the other: "a house such as a house", until they reached the last buildings on the east. The operation lasted three days and found 7626 homes, not counting the huts made of straw.

The scene takes place in the late 16th century under the reign of a son of Askia Daoud.



In Table geographical West African Middle Ages [Dakar, Mem. IFAN, No. 61], R. MAUNY has 75 000 inhabitants for Gao, figures it considers "huge", but it has had to consider in approaching the 13 000 people counted by Barth in Timbuktu in 1854 for "980 houses and hundreds of huts," of 7626 houses identified by the Sudanese Gao before 1591; approximation very interesting indeed: use the "rule of three" we find 101,161 and not 75,000 people!

The population of Gao was also to be well above the 100,000 people:



- Because BARTH itself adds to the heavy traffic season (November-January), the population of Timbuktu from 18 000-23 000 ["the floating population to May 5000 Amount ... ... Many have to have 10 000 "in Henry Barth, Travel and Discoveries in North and Central Africa in the years 1849-1855, Vol. IV, London, 1858, Longman, p. 482]

- Because in times of peace and prosperity, huts in the suburbs grow and the coefficient of occupation of housing may also be higher.



An eyewitness told KATI he counted in Timbuktu 150-180 schools where "the boys were taught to read the Koran." It must be assumed that they were males of 6-15 years. One school, visited at random, had 123 students. By taking the average figure of 165 schools, the number of students in years 6-15 should be approximately 165 x 120 = 19,800, say around 18 000 to 20 000. Assuming that all young boys of the city are educated - that certainly was not the case - this segment of the population, with the girls, would have included 36 000-40 000. In a total population of the old type, the pyramid is broad based and the slice of 0-6 years roughly equal to 63% or 64% of that in 6-15 years, around 24,000 children. Assuming that in the case of an urban population, the age of 15 represent only 36 or 37% of the population instead of 39% on average, we get the people of Timbuktu in the 16th century by the following operation (24,000 + 38,000) x 100 / 36.5 = 170,000 inhabitants.



The fact that in late 15th century, African cities were indeed important, beginning to be recognized: in The State of the World in 1492 (collective work, Paris, La Découverte, 1992, p. 332), the figure of 140 000 inhabitants retained for Gao. However, as known to specialists in historical demography, this implies a population expanded around. Benin was even more crowded. This is the place to recall, for comparison, the population of some cities in Western Europe in the 16th century:



Period European Cities Population Cities Black African Population
1550 Lisbon Gao 140 000 65 000 190 000
Venice in 1540 Timbuktu 140 000 130 000 170 000
London in 1545 Benin 80 000 125 000 250 000
late 16th century Cologne 30000
late 16th century Paris 200 000

Population of cities in Europe and Black Africa in the 16th century. See [52, pp. 85-89] and [35, p. 798], see [37] and [35, p. 788-801]



Across Eastern and Southern Africa have been found many remains of settlements and cities of stone terraces, irrigation works, wells, roads and especially in mines and foundries [42]. On the coast, the ruins of the port towns, overgrown, are still visible and RP MATHEW shows that they were indeed black African cities [46].



The settlement does not seem incomplete unless the edge of the desert to the north (Oualata), and in the Southwest where DAPPER enumerates a half thousand families, and some other regions (countries in Tago and Majumba Congo, the land between the kingdom of Sofala and Cape currents on the east coast etc..) [44].



Note that the thesis of a black African population antécoloniale large and active is perfectly consistent with the existence of a dynamic African indigenous assumed by P. CURTIN a different angle.



The evidence reviewed shows that tropical Africa was well populated, but how to quantify this population?

[djoser-xyyman]

French to English
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References

[1] VAN NOTEN F., in General History of Africa I. Methodology and Prehistory, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, p. 593 and 595

[2] H. Alimen, Prehistory of Africa, Paris, Boubee, 1955, (2nd ed. 1966)

[3] R. LEAKEY, The Birth of Man, Paris, Editions of The Lantern, 1981

[4] D. CLARK J., "The Prehistory of Southern Africa", in General History of Africa, I, Chap. 20, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, p. 558.

[5] F. Wendorf and SCHILD R., Prehistory of the Nile Valley, Academic Press, New York, 1976 (404 p.); "Use of Barley in the Egyptian Late Paleolithic," in Science, No. 4413, 1979, pp. 1341-1347.

[6] F. Wendorf, A. CLOSE, GAUTIER A. and SCHILD R., "The Beginnings of pastoralism in Egypt", in La Recherche, vol. 21, No. 220, April 1990, pp. 436-445.

[7] Muzzolini A., "The Neolithic of northern Africa and its causes", in Neolithic, Archaeological Series, No. 5, BAR International Series 516, 1989, p. 170.

[8] JEG Sutton, "Prehistory of East Africa", in General History of Africa, I, Chap. 19, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, pp. 517-524.

[9] DESANGES J., "The Protoberbères" in General History of Africa, II, Chap. 17, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, pp. 455, 459 and 461, cf. also: B. Sall, "Influences on Ethiopian méridionnales Europe", in Ankh, No. 1, Paris, 1992, pp. 51-58.

[10] H. Alimen, op. cit., footnote 2, pp. 129-157. The Neolithic and Predynastic is common in Egypt and Nubia. On the character of the Black African Egyptian-Nubian civilization, see mainly C. A. DIOP, negro Nations and Culture, 1954, Anticipation of Civilization Negro, 1967, Civilization or Barbarism, 1981, Paris, Presence Africaine.

[11] VAN NOTEN F., op. cit., footnote 1, p. 676.

[12] J. ROSET P., A. Fairhall W. in La Recherche, No. 148, Oct. 1983, p. 1248.

[13] WAI ANDAH B., "The West Africa before the 7th century, in General History of Africa, II, Chap. 24, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980.

[14] B. Davidson, Africa before the white man, Paris, PUF, 1962, p. 56.

Diop C. A., "Towards a reconsideration of the Iron Age in Africa", in Notes Africaines, No. 152, 1976, Dakar, IFAN.

[15] JEG Sutton, "Prehistory of East Africa", in General History of Africa, I, Chap. 19, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, p. 522

[16] D. COLLETT P. and P. ROBERTSHAW T., in Azania, XV, 1980, pp. 133-145.

[17] VAN NOTEN F., op. cit., see note 6.

[18] A. Muzzolini Op. cit., see note 5, p. 165.

[19] H. Alimen, op. cit. See footnote 2.

[20] S. ADAM and Vercoutter J., "The Nubian link between Central Africa and the Mediterranean", in General History of Africa, II, Chap. 8, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, p. 249)

[21] General History of Africa, II, Chap. 8 and 11, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, pp. 254, 273, 334, 335. GEUS F., "Archaeology of the Middle Nile," vol. 1, 1986, vol. 2, 1987, University of Lille.

[22] GRZYMSKY K., "The Size of the population Meroïtic Kingdom: An Estimate," in African Historical Demography, University of Edinburgh, 1981, pp. 259-274

[23] "The metallurgy of Copper and Iron around Agadez (Niger) from its origins to the early medieval period. General views, pp.109 to 126., In N. Echard, Metall. afric., Paris, a company of Africanist, 1983.

[24] C. DIOP A., "Towards a reconsideration of the Iron Age in Africa", African Notes, 1976, Dakar, IFAN, No. 152, pp. 93-95. The same sample from N'Dalane (Senegal) has been dated independently, first by C. A. Diop, the Radiocarbon Laboratory of the University of Dakar, followed by G. DELIBRIAS at the Laboratory in Gif-sur-Yvette in France, and gave the same result:

Sample Dak. 110. Result: 2861 ± 137 BC

Sample Gif 2508. Result: 2829 ± 115 BC



Mr. C. VAN Grunderbeek, Roche E., Doutrelepont H., 1983, "Ancient Metallurgy in Rwanda and Burundi", in Paleometallurgy Days ", Proceedings of the Conference of Compiègne, 22-23 February 1983, pp. 407-423, and" The first Iron Age in Rwanda and Burundi, Archaeology and Environment "in Buhaya (Lake Victoria), the oldest date obtained was 1470 BC (J. of Afr. 52, 1-2) Paris.

We already knew that the iron is pre-Nubian iron Hittite (cf. Th OBENGA, Africa in Antiquity, Paris, Presence Africaine, 1973). Remember that the oldest dates obtained Nok (3500 and 2000 BC) have never been refuted with arguments convincing (cf. Cup site and commentary, CA Diop, in Notes Africaines, Dakar, IFAN, 1976, No. 152, pp 93-95).

Date of iron objects found in a layer of Nachikoufien, after 2000 BC, is unclear. In Mufulwe site, further west, Zambia, a pottery early Iron Age has been dated to the 3rd century BC (cf. P. ROBERT SHAW in Journal of African History, 25, 1984, UK, pp. 388 -389).

[25] VAN NOTEN F., op. cit., see note 6, p. 690

[26] and [27] P. Kalck, History of the Central African Republic prehistoric origins to the present day, Paris, ed. Berger-Levrault, 1974.

[28] J. LECLANT, in General History of Africa, II, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980, p. 304).

[29] J. Durand D., Historical Estimates of World Population - An Evaluation, Philadelphia, Population Studies Center, 1974, p. 9 tabl. II, MAC EVEDY C. A. JONES, Atlas of world population history, Harmond worth, Milddlesex, England Penguin Books, 1978, Biraben J. N., "Essay on the rising numbers of men", Paris, Population, 1979, No. 1, p. 15).

[30] P. Vidal, "Archaeology of the Central field: a realistic approach to the pre-colonial history and ancient, Draft of a synthesis." Research in the Central African Roundtable, Studies and Documents No. 18, Aix-en- Provence, 1984, pp. 5-45. And Communication in Archaeology in Cameroon, by ESSOMBA J. M., International Symposium of Yaounde, 6-9 January 1986, Paris, Karthala, 1992, pp. 133-178.

[31] S. MAC INTOSH K. and R. J. "Prehistoric Investigations at Jenne, Mali" in British archaeol. Report, Inter. Ser. 89, Oxford, UK, 1980.

[32] DW PHILLIPSON, "Early Iron Age in Southern Africa", in General History of Africa, II, Chap. 27, Paris, Young Africa / UNESCO, 1980, pp. 735-749, especially pp. 735, 739, 748).

[33] C. COQUERY-Vidrovitch Moniot and H. Black Africa from 1800 to today, Paris, PUF, 1974.

[34] C. DIOP A., Precolonial Black Africa, Paris, Presence Africaine, 1960 (2nd edition 1987).

[35] L. DIOP M., "The sub-population of Black Africa", in Bulletin of IFAN, 1978, No. 4, Volume 40, Series B, p.718-862.

[36] L. DIOP M. Research on the population of black Africa, PhD State University of Paris I, Sorbonne, 1983, the first part.

[37] L. DIOP M., "Test for assessing the population of black Africa in the 15th century and 16th centuries", in the journal Population, 1985, 6, Paris, INED, p. 855-885.

[38] L. DIOP M., "Response to critical review by JN Biraben," Zamani in Africa, Journal of African History, No. 18-19, University of Yaounde, 1987, p 50-56.

[39] M. Mollat, explorers from the 13th to 16esiècles, Paris, J. -C. Penguin Press, 1984.

[40] Mr. SORET, History of the Congo, Berger-Levrault, 1978, p. 37.

[41] L. Frobenius, History of African civilization, translated from German, Paris, 1952, Gallimard.

[42] B. Davidson, Africa before the white man, Paris, 1962, PUF, p. 204. See also JASPAN M. A. in Science and Society, Vol. XIX, No. 3 and General History of Africa (UNESCO).

[43] P. Mercier, Civilizations of Benin, Continental Society of modern editions, Paris, 1962.

[44] O. DAPPER, Description of Africa (translated from Flemish), Amsterdam, Z. Wolfgang et al., 1686.

[45] CA da Mosto A. , Relation of Travels to the West Coast of Africa, Ch translation SCHEFFER, Paris, Leroux, 1895.

[46] V. Fernandes, Description of the west coast of Africa, translation Monod et al., 1951, Bissau, Centro de Estudo de Guine Portuguesa, mem. 11.

[47] R. P. MATHEW G., "The Indian Ocean washes the dead cities", in The UNESCO Courier, October 1959.

[48] L. DIOP M., Bulletin IFAN, 1978, No. 4, p. 769, op. cit., note 35.

[49] J. SURET-CANALE, Colonial Era, Editions sociales, 1964, especially pp. 182-194 and p. 28

[50] General MANGIN, Out of Africa (Literature and logbooks), Paris, Pan and Steel, 1936, Book I, cited by SURET CANALE-J, Black Africa, the colonial era, Paris, Editions sociales, 1962 p. 4

[51] COQUERY-Vidrovitch C., Congo at the time of the Great Companies, 1899-1930, Paris-The Hague, Mouton, 1972, pp.494 to 503

[52] REINHARD M. and ARMENGAUD A., General History of World Population, Paris, Montchrestien 1961, pp. 365-366 and p.476).

[53] K. KROTKI J., "The people in Sudan in the 19th century and early 20th centuries, in Annals of historical demography, Paris, 1979, pp. 165-193, especially Table II.

[54] H. DAWSON , "Disease and Population Decline of the Kikuyu of Kenya, 1890 - 1925", African Historical Demography, 1981, University of Edinburgh, pp. 121-135.

[55] H. ARENDT, Imperialism, 1982, Fayard, pp. 111-112.

[56] C. COQUERY-Vidrovitch and Moniot, Black Africa from 1800 to today, PUF, nlle al. Clio, 1974. pp. 156-212.

[57] C. COQUERY-Vidrovitch , In African Historical Demography, Vol. I, University of Edinburgh, 1977, pp. 331-351

[58] Quoted by P. Kalck, History of the Central African Republic from its origins to today, 1974, p. 181.

[59] Ibid, 1974, p. 176 et seq.

[60] Retel-LAURENTIN A. Infertility in black Africa, diseases and social consequences, Masson, Paris, 1974

[61] Retel-LAURENTIN A., A nation adrift, a company in decline, the Nzakara, Paris, J. P. Delarge, 1979.

[62] BA O., "The French penetration in Cayor, Dakar, collection No. 2, Volume 1 of the unpublished documents, Dakar, 1976.

[63] J. Hurault, "Breeders and farmers in the highlands of Cameroon.'s Population lamidats and Banyo" in Population, Paris 1969, INED, No. 5.

[64] Proceedings published by UNESCO, Studies and Documents for the General History of Africa, 1979, 1985.

[65] Proceedings published under the title From trafficking to slavery, and CRHMA French Society of Overseas History, Paris, 1988.

[66] C. Becker and Martin V., The Slave Trade in the Atlantic, 1976, Paris, French Society of History and Overseas Geuthner, P. 283.

[67] B. Davidson, Mother Africa, Paris, PUF, 1965, pp.217 ff.

[68] F. RENAULT DAGET and S. The African slave trade, Karthala, 1985.

[69] Cl MEILLASSOUX ed., Slavery in precolonial Africa, Paris, Maspero, 1975.

[70] C. Becker, "From the slave to slavery", Paris, 1988, HRC Atlantic world and the French Society of History of Overseas Communication to the Conference of Nantes, Proceedings, Volume 2, pp. 71-110.

[71] R. MAUNY, The Dark Ages of Africa, Fayard, 1970, pp. 238-239 and p. 246.

[72] C. Becker, "Ecological Conditions and slave trade in Senegambia," African Economic History, 14, 1985, pp. 161-216.

[73] F. Theseus, Proceedings of the Conference of Nantes, Volume I, 1988, p. 223-245 (see note 64).

[74] G. Duby and A. Wallon History of rural France, Seuil, 1975, p. . 41

[75] P. Kalck, History of the Central African Republic. Paris, Berger-Levrault, 1974

[76] J. MARCHAL Y., "Remains of ancient occupation in Yatenga (Upper Volta). Kigba recognition of the country", in Journal of African History, ORSTOM, Series Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 15, 1978, No. 4, pp. 449-4

[77] Huraults J., "The ancient settlements of farmers in Adamawa Western Methodology of a spatial approach", Journal of African History ORSTOM, Series Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 22, 1978, No. 1, pp. 115-145.

[78] Personal communication. [79a] J. SUTTON E. G., African Historical Demography, Vol. II, 1981, Edinburgh, p. 635; communication J. E. INKORI goes in the same direction (p. 283-31

[79 b] Duarte Pacheco Pereira (c. 1506-1508), of Esmeraldo Situ Orbis, West Coast of Africa, southern Morocco, Gabon, trans. R. MAUNY, Bissau 1956, Centro de Estudos da Guiné Portuguesa, No. 19, p.135 and 190, footnote 276

[80] Thornton, J., in African Historical Demography, Volume II, Proceedings of the Seminar Held in the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 24-25 April 1981.

[81] J. Thornton, "Demography The effect of the slave trade on Western Africa 1500-1850", in African Historical Demography, II, University of Edinburgh, 1981, p. 691-720

[82] W. Randle G. L., "From the slave settlement. The Portuguese in Angola", in Annales Economies, Societes, Civilisations, Paris, March-April 1969, p. 289-305.

[83] J. Durand D., Historical Estimates of World Population - An Evaluation, Philadelphia, Population Studies Center, 1974, p. 9, Table I (where he cites the figures proposed by C. CLARK, pp. 49-53 and Table II), and C. Mac EVEDY and R. JONES, offer 30-60000000 in 1500, 50-80 in 1750, 88-120 1900. C. CLARK (in J. D. Durand, p. 9) and J. N. Biraben (78-79 million in 1500, 94 / 95 million in 1750 and 95,000,000 in 1900), Table 1, reference op. cit. Note [29]).

[84] Archaeology in Cameroon, by ESSOMBA J. M., International Symposium of Yaounde, 6-9 January 1986, Paris, Karthala, 1992; DIOP-MAES L. M., "General Introduction to the Seminar Mega-Chad, datings and chronology in the Lake Chad Basin," Bondy, ORSTOM, 1989, forthcoming; BECKER C., Diouf M., M'Bodji M., "The demographic sources history of Senegambia, "in Annals of historical demography, historical demography Society, Paris, p. 15-25, 1987.

[85] C. DIOP A., op. cit., footnote 34, Chapter 6.

[86] J. Houdaille, "Proceedings of the General Congress of the IUSSP, Paris, in Population, 1985, No. 6, p. 996.

[djoser-xyyman]

The point of my MO is we have to be resourceful. To the newbies and young, Check out the references. There are many leads.

Don't waste time debating or argueing whether AEians were black or white. THAT DEBATE IS OVER. As the Sage pointed out there is more to AE than black or white.

To me, intellectual stimulation comes from discovering the truth.

[djoser-xyyman]

huh, exactly. You missed the point of the post ...above yours . YOU have work to do. I give out clues. Follow the lead.
Discovery is part of the high.


Here are a few papers to track down from the refrences above:

[29] J. Durand D., Historical Estimates of World Population - An Evaluation, Philadelphia, Population Studies Center, 1974, p. 9 tabl. II, MAC EVEDY C. A. JONES, Atlas of world population history, Harmond worth, Milddlesex, England Penguin Books, 1978, Biraben J. N., "Essay on the rising numbers of men", Paris, Population, 1979, No. 1, p. 15).

[57] C. COQUERY-Vidrovitch , In African Historical Demography, Vol. I, University of Edinburgh, 1977, pp. 331-351


[26] and [27] P. Kalck, History of the Central African Republic prehistoric origins to the present day, Paris, ed. Berger-Levrault, 1974

[13] WAI ANDAH B., "The West Africa before the 7th century, in General History of Africa, II, Chap. 24, Paris, Jeune Afrique / UNESCO, 1980

[djoser-xyyman]

You do realize you can do a lot of research just in your underwear.. . .

[anansi]

Nice contribution but please put some pants on..

[djoser-xyyman]

ennedi.free.fr/bovide3.htm


Living in the desert, this is not just become like a hard world, hostile, unforgiving. It is also to be sober, learn the life of the most beautiful and most intense of the world. (The Clesio).

During the period of pastoral societies of the Sahara appear very diverse ethnically and culturally, then gradually the population appears to be dominated by white groups{LOL!!!!!). All the features of this settlement show that it is in this crucible that is is the strain from which will emerge early Berbers of the Sahara. Later other waves of migration paléoberbères follow s' adding to the strain prehistoric to constitute the foundation of the world Touareg. (Malika Hachid).

These groups are scattered throughout the Tassili n 'Ajjer, including the region of Iherir where they left magnificent paintings.

The protoberbères testify to a precious art with a pronounced taste for mixing colors and especially a new technique, that of line drawing.

Alfred Muzzolini brings these paintings within a school that he calls an "school-Iheren Tahilari" according to two shelters Tadjelahine plateau, above the village of Iherir, where the compositions of this abound.

The school-Iheren Tahilahi.

This school matches figurations which are distinguished by a technique, line art, and the type of characters exclusively Caucasian(LOL!!!).


This school with its naturalism evolved and its technical mastery has certainly produced the finest masterpieces of works of the rock paintings of the Sahara.

The main feature is the drawing made with a fine brush, sometimes used alone, sometimes used with solid light clear tone solid color and some darker.



Their faces and profiles of remarkable accuracy. They are all Mediterranean-type. The short beard is very common and already evokes representations Berber.

Women have sophisticated hairstyles, long hair in braids or buns, sometimes supplemented by small caps. The men wear the traditional headdress of the "Libyans" of Egyptian bas-reliefs: smooth and long hair pulled toward the rear and sides. Feathers often counted hairstyles.

Another distinctive feature is constituted by the presence of body paint very often. It 's observed in various forms. The arms, legs and sometimes the entire body are decorated with paintings or tattoos. Oxen are also sometimes decorated, zebra stripes.



The ethnology teaches us that these body paintings have a meaning other than adornment. It is a question often magical signs that come in the religious rites and warriors. They can also help distinguish one group over another, or the social status of each.

The richness of their physical appearance, clothing, hairstyles, body painting, reveals the high sensitivity of aesthetic protoberbères, and announced that their descendants. The Tuareg today, for example, n 'never dare to appear in a neighboring camp if they do not wear their best clothes.

The usual weapon of the school is the throwing stick. It is a hunting weapon but also a weapon of pageantry. Sometimes simple wooden jointed, that is most often a long stick carefully décoré.On brandished in battle scenes or dance.

The arc has almost completely disappeared, the spear used for hunting.


The hunter holds in his hand a throwing stick S as well as a spear. It is followed by a ram. Iheren.
The sheep, virtually unheard of prior periods, is now becoming very common consequence of the drying climate. It is often associated in the paintings to a warrior.

Very often the man protoberbère is accompanied by a small ram that follows faithfully as a dog. The Protoberbères central Sahara have maintained links with the ram are very particular symbolism and usability.

A scene Jabbaren site shows a man leaning the body associated with a ram and a weapon, a stick could jet.Il s act of a play or a warrior ritual.



A cave painting represents a child Tahilahi affectionately stroking a ram. This scene might suggest that young children were accustomed to s occupy a ram.

In a naturalistic consumed whole bestiary of the savanna is represented: giraffes, elephants, ostriches, cats, gazelles and antelopes.

The presence of the oryx, a large antelope with huge horns and evolves into a dry environment, reflects the arid climate. Living in the Sahel semi-desert oryx regime allows it to cover its water needs with just the morning dew and allows him to switch completely to drink.

The tribe is moving a theme that recurs frequently in the compositions. The groups were protoberbères pastors. They really represented their livestock, especially in scenes of migration in search of good pastures.

The herd ahead guided by young shepherds. Some cattle are free but other women carry on their backs.

Oxen are also luggage, often set between the horns, and the reinforcements tents.

The Fulani wodabee utulisent yet to move their camp a similar mode of transportation.


At the campsite, the women get the tents with the help of wooden poles. The Tuareg woman from the Aïr still carry the same manner as their ancestors represented on the paintings of Iheren.

[djoser-xyyman]

www.clio.fr/bibliotheque/Les_Garamantes_conducteurs_de_chars_et_bAtisseurs_dans_le_Fezzan_antique.asp


Garamantians, charioteers and builders in the Fezzan ancient

Gabriel Camps
(† September 2002) Former Director of the National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography of Bardo Algiers Former Director of the Research Institute Professor Emeritus of the Sahara University of Provence


"Ten days of travel Augila, there is also a hill of salt and a source, the palm trees are grown extensively as they do other hills near the salt. This region is inhabited by a people called Garam, a very powerful people, covering the salt with mud then to sow their crops. That is where the road is the shortest to the country of the Lotus Eaters, a journey of thirty days. In the country Garamantian, there are bulls, when they graze, walk backwards. They do so because their horns as advancing toward the front of their head that they were advancing in grazing, their horns would plant in the soil. Only this they differ from other bulls, and by the thickness and hardness of their hides. The Garam have chariots drawn by four horses, which they chase the Troglodyte Ethiopians, who of all people whose echo was able to reach your ears, is one whose feet are by far the fastest. The Troglodytes feed on snakes, lizards and other reptiles of the same kind. Their language, unlike other peoples, like the squeaking of bats ... This chapter of Herodotus (IV.183) is the only reference he made the people of Garam, but it nevertheless has a life fully documented history.

Gabriel Camps here is an update on the literary sources but especially on archaeological excavations allow us to better understand this ancient people of Fezzan.

A nation and a civilization of the desert

Of the various peoples of the ancient Sahara, the Garamantian was certainly the largest, most powerful and also more advanced. The heart of this civilization was in the southern part of Libya, bordering the massif of Fezzan. It is no exaggeration to say that a culture existed garamantique nourished by a trans-Saharan trade which provided the relationship between northern countries, imbued with the Mediterranean civilizations and south where savannah is home to African cultures. This double influence explains the diversity of ideas on the origins of Garamantians.

The very name of Garam means' people houses. " The root arhrham "home construction", is a pan-Berber roots. The many ruins of Wadi El-Agial testify in favor of this hypothesis.

The Garamantians were part of this set of dark-skinned people who are different from Sudanese negroid and Mediterranean white. During history, this type of population of sedentary farmers was known under various names: the most common is the Harasse but, in Morocco and Western Sahara, they are grunting and called Fezzan Shushan. It was long believed that Haratin were descendants of Sudanese slaves dragged through the desert to the Maghreb, but these are skinned Izaggaren say, that is to say the Reds in Tamahaq, the Berber dialect of the central Sahara is the language of the Tuaregs.

The work, already old, the Italian anthropologist Sergi are quite familiar with the ancient people of Fezzan and particularly that of the many cemeteries "garamantiques" of Wadi El-Agial. Among the skulls collected, Sergi recognized 46.6% of the Mediterranean, which he calls "Eurafrican" 26.6% "Eurafrican négrifiés" and 26.6% of Negroids. A few years later, identifying human remains Protohistorical Sahara, Marie-Claude Chamla noted that the Negroid represented just 25% of the total. The mixed type that corresponds to "Eurafrican négrifiés" Sergi is the third non-Negroid Eurafrican represent 41% of subjects studied.

These tests suggest that the population of the Sahara in the late Neolithic presented the same variety as the present. The study of paintings and prints also seems to confirm this view.

The Garamantians Getulians are they that we should be among the ancestors of the Berbers as might suggest linguistic and anthropological data? Are they close to the Ethiopians skinned people oases? The names of Fezzan, largely contemporary Garam, could we do recognize them as breeders of horses and charioteers depicted on rock carvings from the style Équidien "- a term preferred over" Cabalin.

Ancient sources

Herodotus cites Garamantians among the peoples inhabiting the interior of Libya and their country lies at thirty days of the Mediterranean Sea. Yet, remarkably, this was exactly the time that the reign of Domitian, the Roman Septimius Flaccus began to reach Garama from Leptis Magna. Subsequently, a more direct route allowed to reduce travel time to twenty days. Herodotus informs us that even the Ethiopians continued Garamantians on chariots with four horses. Five centuries later, Martin Tyre recall campaigns of the king of Garamantians among Ethiopians to assert its authority. Livy and Strabo place vaguely Garamantians near Emporia Little Sirte. They range from Getulians north and the Ethiopians to the south.

The Roman

In early AD, the Roman Empire was expanding and the rich colonies in Africa - that is to say, North Africa - had to be pacified and protected. In 20 J.C. before the proconsul of Africa L. Cornelius Balbus went to conquer the country Garamantian and captured his capital Garama today Gera. But the Roman dominion was precarious and a few years later, the Garam helped open the old Numidian mercenary Tacfarinas who led a great revolt against Rome. Peace took hold for a few decades, but the death of the Emperor Vespasian in 70 AD, they s'immiscèrent in the political life of the empire in answering the call of the people Oea, the the current Tripoli, they helped to besiege and plunder the wealthy Leptis Magna. It was not until the advent of Septimius Severus (193-211) to extend the Pax Romana on the region. The roads have become safer, allowed a new development of trade and the country Garamantian then knew its apogee. We can have a good idea of what everyday life of the garrison of a Roman outpost of the Libyan Sahara pacified through ostraca, these shards of pottery found at Bu Njem.

In late antiquity, the memory Garamantian fades somewhat. The evidence on this nation that Tacitus said untamed waves and again become tainted by myth. Paul Orosius, a priest from Spain who wrote in 416, at the request of St. Augustine, a History against the pagans, situated on the banks of the Southern Ocean which is a literary creation. In 569, the chronicler John of Biclar announces conversion to Christianity Garamantian. A recent study by René Rebuffat is a curious mention of King Garamantian in Don Quixote by Cervantes (I, 18): Pentapolin, is the name that Cervantes gave the giant from the imagination of the ingenious gentleman, and that is closer to the Pentapolis Cyrenaica: obviously, Piraeus will still often mistaken for a man ...

Cities and cemeteries

Following a generally accepted hypothesis, the Garam should their names to the importance of habitat ruins, tombs and various buildings that occupy the Wadi El-Agial the heart of the country Garam. The Archaeology of Fezzan has experienced two phases and this was the first Italian mission in the years 1930-1935 Caputo, Pace and the Italian anthropologist Sergi. Academia dei Lincei assured the publication of these works ("sahariani Scavi, Rome, 1951). A decade later, the service undertook archaeological excavations in Libya Germa, long regarded as the antique capital of Garamantians. Mohamed Ayoub published in 1962 with preliminary reports on its research in the city of Germa and its vicinity, especially the royal cemetery. Meanwhile, Charles Daniels undertook research on two neighboring sites of Germa in Zinchecra and Saniat Gebril.

Germa, long recognized as occupying the site of ancient Garama, capital of Garam, was mentioned by Pliny the Elder about the expedition of Cornelius Balbus in 20 BC Ptolemy called it the "metropolis . Excavations in Germa itself and in adjacent sites of Zinchecra and Saniat Gebril have revealed the role of leadership exerted by Garama since pre-Roman to the Arab conquest of 642.

The Roman mausoleum of Germa

The famous mausoleum of Germa date of the Flavian period and especially the reign of Domitian. The presence of vases in terra sig from the dispensary of Rasinius Pisanus, who was very active under Domitian, confirms these data. It's still the first century AD that the tombs date back to Roman cremation rite next to the mausoleum containing amphorae imported.

The "tomb sanctuary south of the shrine dates from the same period. This set consists of two enclosures, the first seems to have served as a place of rest. Threshold, which ensures the transition towards the enclosure is occupied by a sepulchral rectangular trough flanked by four stone mortars. In the burial site from many amphorae were found in the Greek type on, mostly inscriptions in the Libyan. Many bones of oxen and sheep, burned in large part, demonstrate the existence of a funerary cult and the practice of incubation Herodotus already reported in Nasamonians. The first enclosure was a place of rest where the faithful waited in his sleep on premonitory dream or prophetic. The northern Sahara has many graves with facilities for incubation. The Germa is the southernmost.

The necropolis of El-Oued Agial

The valley of Wadi El-Agial is extraordinarily rich in tombs of various types. Italian archaeologists have counted, necropolis by cemetery, 59,680 graves. You meet different types of tombs characteristics of Saharan regions. The types of falls most common are: adebni, a sort of stone mound lowered here by extended two streaks of stones or branches; Chouchet the monument of cylindrical form, the bazina, whose exterior wall construction, usually with vertical or a small fruit, is made of a regular stacking of stones, several circular tiered seating, the pyramid of raw clay or lined with stones.

Caputo studied glasses were found in abundance in the funerary Fezzan. They come from both Gaul and Syria, Italy, and even African cities like Carthage and Leptis Magna.

Even where Roman influence had become predominant, the Garam continued to bury their dead in the folded position, the four members being bent. This provision is sometimes challenged by the contracted position that brings her knees to chin level. With their furniture very dated, the graves of Fezzan demonstrate that this practice, which requires the bondage of the body was still in common use until the fourth century AD.

Another interesting result of the excavations of the necropolis is the discovery of Garam sacred stones or stones, steles and cocked representations of hands are all reasons attributable to the influence of Carthage.

Recent work by Ayoub and Daniels allowed to enter the circular pit tombs and explore the extensive network of foggara, these underground tunnels that drain water from an aquifer to farmland downstream, witness a developed agriculture.

Zinchecra

Other Recent excavations have focused on Germa but this is not where is the site of the oldest housing. This is Zinchecra, spur overlooking the valley of Wadi El-Agial. This relief was the seat of a long occupation: at least three hundred houses were identified, clinging to steep slopes. These houses had a blanket in palms as well as pens for livestock. The last period up to the late first century AD has more elaborate structures that have walls of mud bricks. A summary enclosure limited the city below the city.

The site Ganiat Gebril revealed abundant ceramic first to third centuries. This village seems to have been some industrial focus of many workshops blacksmiths, basket makers and weavers mingle with housing plan summary.

Outlook

Research is ongoing and actively opening up new fields of knowledge on the Garam. Marikje van der Veen, University of Leicester, through analysis of botanical remains, has yielded new data on agriculture and the lifestyle of men who occupied this region since the Neolithic. New research programs conducted by the Department of Antiquities in Tripoli and the British Academy give us hope that soon the Garamantians lose some of their mystery.

In antiquity, the land of Garam was famous for its gems, its carbuncles and other amazonite, but the "emerald of Garam, dear Theodore Monod, remain the domain of legend.



July 2002

Gabriel Camps, died Sept. 6, 2002 in Aix-en-Provence, was born 20

funeral rites of ancient history, in addition, a book on Massinissa the great Numidian king, addressed the first time in the history of exceptional tion.

In Algiers, just after the Revolutionary War, his responsibilities were quickly matured, that of a great laboratory of the CNRS, the Centre for Research in anthropology, prehistory and ethnography, coupled with management's Museum Bardo and that of a journal, Libyca. Algeria, it was also the Sahara walked in space but also over time, in many missions in the Hoggar and the Tassili under the direction of the Research Institute of the Sahara.

A talented author

Gabriel Camps settled in Aix-en-Provence in 1968. At the University of Provence, he had recreated his framework for teaching and research, with the laboratory of anthropology and prehistory of the western Mediterranean countries. The horizon grew wider as shown by the directions of collective works of this period: The Cro-Magnon (1970), Epipalaeolithic Mediterranean (1975), Atlas of the prehistoric Mediterranean South French (1978-1981), not forgetting a large volume of personal writing, Prehistory of an island. The origins of Corsica (1988).

But North Africa remained at the forefront of the human heart and the central concern of the scientist, summed up this huge undertaking a priority: the Encyclopedia Berber starts up thirty years ago and unfinished totaling twenty-five fascicles and more than 4000 pages, half of his hand. Berbers, the margins of history: it was also the subject of a book published in 1980, to accompany these men and women encountered on the paths followed by Gabriel Camps prehistory in late antiquity and the beyond.

This tireless worker, with equal ease in the text and on the ground, was also a writer of talent, sensitive dramas like the smiles of the story. By signing a decade ago at Perrin North Africa to the feminine, he organized the wonderful parade of twenty heroines, opened 6000 years BC by a "Caspian" from the Atlas, closed by a great lady Kabyle during the horror of the war of independence. Those who have not had the pleasure of knowing Gabriel Camps discover in this book engaging and generous man, inquisitive and open to other than his family, his disciples and friends have lost with him.

Serge Lancel (Member of the Institute)